Category: Indian History •
Subcategory: Modern History •
Language: en
1717 CE
Explanation:
In 1717, Farrukhsiyar issued a Royal Farman (also known as the Magna Carta of the Company) granting the British duty-free trading rights in Bengal in return for a fixed annual payment of Rs. 3,000.
The massive plunder of royal treasuries and noble vaults, which irreparably bankrupted the imperial government.
Explanation:
Nadir Shah's 1739 loot of seventy crore rupees and the subsequent raids by Abdali stripped the empire of its financial reserves. This economic paralysis destroyed the state's ability to maintain a standing army or patronize its administration, transforming plunder into the primary tool for wealth creation and plunging the subcontinent into political chaos.
Balaji Vishwanath
Explanation:
Balaji Vishwanath was appointed as the Peshwa (Prime Minister) by Chhatrapati Shahu in 1713, making the office hereditary and establishing Pune as the center of Maratha administration.
While the central Mughal authority collapsed, the successor and regional states established competent local administrations, trade and agriculture flourished in several provinces, and cultural patronage shifted to regional courts, fostering vibrant local art and religious harmony.
Explanation:
Recent historical scholarship discards the "Dark Age" theory. It shows that although there was political fragmentation, regional centers like Lucknow, Bengal, Hyderabad, and Mysore ensured law and order, trade grew due to European contact, and regional languages and arts (like Urdu poetry, Bada Imambara, and Rajput paintings) reached their peak.
Women's lives were characterized by a complete lack of individuality, with upper-class women confined to homes (purdah) and lower-class women undertaking hard physical labor. Social evils like sati, child marriage, polygamy, and prohibition of widow remarriage were widespread.
Explanation:
The sources mention that despite some reform attempts by enlightened rulers like Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber and Prashuram Bhau to promote widow remarriage, they failed due to orthodox resistance, leaving the patriarchal social patterns unchallenged.
It led to the migration of artists, poets, and scholars to newly prosperous regional capitals like Lucknow, Hyderabad, and Jaipur.
Explanation:
With the imperial treasury drained and emperors reduced to figureheads, regional courts assumed the role of cultural patrons. This shift sparked a renaissance in regional literature, such as Urdu in Lucknow and Malayalam in the South, reflecting the broader decentralization characteristic of the era's transition.
Baji Rao I (or Baji Rao)
Explanation:
Baji Rao I (ruled 1720-1740) was a military genius who launched the policy of northward expansion and institutionalized the Maratha Confederacy of autonomous chiefs like Scindia, Holkar, Gaekwad, and Bhonsle.
Haider Ali exploited the political vacuum created by the weak Wodeyar rulers, the heavy financial debts of Mysore, and repeated Maratha invasions. He used his military capabilities and French alliances to modernize the army and consolidate power.
Explanation:
Mysore was nominally ruled by Chikka Krishnaraja Wodeyar II, but real power was held by ministers Nanjaraj and Devraj. Amidst external invasions and financial chaos, Haider Ali overthrew the ministers in 1761, modernized the military with French experts, established a modern armory at Dindigul, and stabilized the state.
The economy was technically backward but self-sufficient in handicrafts and agricultural output. India maintained a highly favorable balance of trade, exporting valuable cotton textiles and spices, which made the country a major 'sink of precious metals' as European bullion flowed inward.
Explanation:
India's exports vastly exceeded imports, and the trade surplus was covered by the import of gold and silver. However, the lack of modern scientific education, industrial manufacturing, and centralized national markets kept the overall economic framework traditional and vulnerable to subsequent colonial extraction.
Successor States, Independent Kingdoms, and New/Rebel States.
Explanation:
Successor states (Awadh, Bengal, Hyderabad) broke away but nominally recognized Mughal sovereignty; Independent kingdoms (Mysore, Rajputs) emerged due to central destabilization; and Rebel states (Marathas, Sikhs, Jats) were forged through direct armed conflict against the empire. This structural classification defines the geopolitical transition from medieval unity to modern fragmentation.
The Ijarah system, also known as revenue farming.
Explanation:
Introduced under the influence of the Irani faction leader Zulfiqar Khan, the Ijarah system allowed the highest bidders to collect land revenue. This transition marked a fatal departure from the centralized medieval agrarian system, leading to severe economic exploitation of peasants and accelerating the structural decay of the Mughal economy.
Farrukhsiyar
Explanation:
Farrukhsiyar tried to plot against the Sayyid brothers, but in 1719 they allied with Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath and used Maratha troops to capture, blind, and kill him.
Ali Muhammad Khan
Explanation:
Ali Muhammad Khan established Rohilkhand amidst the collapse of central authority in North India following the invasions of Nadir Shah.
The Jat state, consolidated under leaders like Churaman and Badan Singh.
Explanation:
Initially an agrarian rebellion, the Jats built fortified strongholds like Thun, Dig, and Bharatpur, physically challenging Mughal authority at its nerve center. The rise of such rebellion-born states underscored the structural breakdown of the medieval empire and the emergence of localized political entities.
The invasion of the Persian king Nadir Shah and the subsequent Battle of Karnal.
Explanation:
Nadir Shah defeated Emperor Muhammad Shah at Karnal, plundering Delhi and taking the Kohinoor diamond and the Peacock Throne. This massive drain of wealth, estimated at seventy crore rupees, completely paralyzed the central administration and left India politically exposed to modern European colonial powers.
Ijarah (or revenue farming)
Explanation:
Zulfikar Khan introduced the practice of Ijarah, which was a system of contractual revenue farming, replacing the traditional land revenue systems of Todar Mal.
Prince Muazzam (Bahadur Shah I), who was forced to adopt a pacific, conciliatory policy of appeasement towards regional powers like the Marathas, Rajputs, and Sikhs.
Explanation:
Ascending the throne at age sixty-three after killing his brothers, Bahadur Shah I inherited a structurally compromised and financially drained empire. His inability to assert military dominance forced him to issue titles, grant concessions, and appease rebellious factions (earning him the title 'Shah-i-Bekhabar'). This forced pacification highlighted the loss of medieval imperial might, marking the transition towards a period where regional entities operated as de facto modern independent states.
It highlighted the rise of the nobility as 'king-makers', as Farrukhsiyar was both installed and assassinated by the Sayyid brothers.
Explanation:
Farrukhsiyar gained the throne in 1713 with the help of the Hindustani faction leaders, Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali, who became Wazir and Mir Bakshi respectively. His assassination in 1719 by these same nobles, with Maratha assistance, was the first time a Mughal emperor was killed by his nobles, destroying the medieval aura of absolute imperial invincibility.
Murshid Quli Khan
Explanation:
Murshid Quli Khan consolidated his power by simultaneously holding the offices of Diwan (revenue) and Nazim (administration), making Bengal virtually independent after Aurangzeb's death.
Shah-e-Bekhabar
Explanation:
Khafi Khan gave Bahadur Shah I the title 'Shah-e-Bekhabar' (the Headless King or the Heedless King) because of his pacifying policies and lack of attention to administrative details.
The Battle of Shakr-Kheda.
Explanation:
Nizam-ul-Mulk (Chin Qilich Khan), the leader of the Turani faction, defeated the Mughal appointee Mubariz Khan at Shakr-Kheda. The emperor's forced recognition of the Nizam as the de facto ruler of the Deccan marked the formal fracturing of the empire into modern regional successor states.
The Peacock Throne of Shah Jahan and the Kohinoor diamond
Explanation:
Nadir Shah looted the imperial treasures of Delhi, carrying back more than 70 crore rupees in wealth, including the famous jewel-studded Peacock Throne and the Koh-i-Noor diamond.
Najib-ud-Daula
Explanation:
In 1757, Ahmad Shah Abdali plundered Delhi, recognized Alamgir II as the nominal emperor, and appointed Najib-ud-Daula, a Rohilla chieftain, as the Mir Bakshi to act as his personal supreme agent.
Raghunath Rao
Explanation:
In 1758, the Maratha chief Raghunath Rao captured Punjab and Lahore, expelling Abdali's son Timur Shah and Najib-ud-Daula. This action angered Abdali, who returned to fight the Marathas.
Travancore (Kerala)
Explanation:
Martanda Varma established the independent state of Kerala with Travancore as its capital, brought economic reforms, modernized his army, and successfully expelled the Dutch.
Bahadur Shah II (Bahadur Shah Zafar)
Explanation:
Bahadur Shah II (Zafar) was the last Mughal emperor. He was proclaimed Emperor of India by the mutinous sepoys in 1857, but after the revolt's failure, he was tried and exiled to Rangoon.
Treaty of Bassein
Explanation:
After being defeated by Jaswant Rao Holkar at Poona, Peshwa Baji Rao II fled to British protection and signed the Treaty of Bassein on December 31, 1802, accepting a subsidiary alliance.
Suraj Mal
Explanation:
Jat power reached its highest glory under Suraj Mal (ruled 1756-1763), who unified the Jats, built a strong agrarian economy, and compelled the Mughals to recognize his authority.
Strategically, the Mughals lost all territory west of the Indus, including Kabul, exposing India to repeated northwestern attacks. Politically, the absolute plunder of the treasury and the capture of the emperor shattered the prestige of the Mughal crown, encouraging regional powers to assert independence.
Explanation:
The invasion inflicted heavy damage on imperial finances (looting over 70 crore rupees, the Peacock Throne, and the Kohinoor). By ceding Kabul, the empire lost its natural defensive barrier, making the subcontinent highly vulnerable to subsequent invasions by Ahmad Shah Abdali.
Zulfikar Khan
Explanation:
Jahandar Shah was considered a weak and incompetent ruler who came to power solely with the active military and political backing of the powerful Iranian noble Zulfikar Khan.
Mysore bypassed traditional intermediaries and established a highly centralized military-bureaucratic state. They imposed land taxes directly on the peasants and collected them in cash through salaried state officials, enormously enhancing the resource base of the state.
Explanation:
Unlike other regional states that relied heavily on local zamindars, hereditary poligars, or banking elites, Mysore reduced the powers of traditional intermediaries. This direct collection model improved the state's financial stability and funded its constant warfare and modernization.
Sawai Jai Singh II (or Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber)
Explanation:
The most outstanding Rajput ruler of the 18th century, Sawai Jai Singh of Amber, built the city of Jaipur and established five Jantar Mantars (astronomical observatories) to study planetary motions.
The Maratha Empire was structurally organized as a loose, feudal confederacy of autonomous chiefs who frequently quarreled. Furthermore, their fragile financial base relied heavily on external plunder (Chauth and Sardeshmukhi) rather than internal agricultural or industrial development.
Explanation:
The Maratha state had a loose political setup where chiefs like Scindia, Holkar, Gaekwad, and Bhonsle operated semi-independently and often clashed. They functioned primarily as rent-extracting military entities and failed to promote modern administrative, educational, or commercial structures.
To extract the recorded revenue demands of the state, jagirdars, revenue-farmers (izaradars), and zamindars subjected the peasantry to intense, coercive exploitation, driving many farmers to desert their lands and launch peasant rebellions.
Explanation:
The pressure on farmers and agriculture worsened as jagirdars tried to maximize collections from their temporary holdings. Since the revenue demands were high and rigid, peasants sank into debt or abandoned cultivation, destabilizing the agrarian economy of the empire.
Haider Ali
Explanation:
Haider Ali, who rose through the ranks of the Mysore army, sidelined the Wodeyar king Chikka Krishnaraja Wodeyar II and his ministers to become the de facto ruler of Mysore in 1761.
While traditional Indian slavery was mild and treated slaves as hereditary household servants, the arrival of European companies commercialized the system, as they began purchasing large numbers of slaves from Bengal, Assam, and Bihar for the global markets.
Explanation:
The sources state that the menace of slavery was widespread, and economic distress often forced poor parents to sell their offspring. The European trading companies tapped into this distress, buying and transporting Indian slaves to the European and American markets, which intensified the exploitative nature of the slave trade.
Successor States were founded by former Mughal governors who maintained nominal ties and acknowledged the symbolic sovereignty of the Mughal Emperor. New States arose from direct popular, agrarian, or religious rebellions against Mughal rule and sought complete independence.
Explanation:
Successor states like Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad were established by former Mughal officials (Murshid Quli Khan, Saadat Khan, and Nizam-ul-Mulk) who never directly confronted the emperor. In contrast, Rebel or New states like the Marathas, Jats, and Sikhs engaged in harsh, direct military confrontation to carve out sovereign entities.
Syed Abdullah Khan and Syed Hussain Ali Khan Barha
Explanation:
The Sayyid brothers belonged to the Hindustani group of nobility and earned the title of 'king-makers' by engineering the ascension and deposition of several Later Mughal emperors, starting with Farrukhsiyar.
Murshid Quli Khan broke the traditional Mughal system of checks and balances by holding the offices of both Diwan (revenue) and Nazim (administration) simultaneously, which allowed him to centralize financial power and establish virtual independence.
Explanation:
Traditionally, the Mughal center kept the Subedar and Diwan separate to prevent either from becoming too powerful. By consolidating both roles, Murshid Quli Khan bypassed this administrative check, streamlined revenue collection, and made Bengal virtually independent of imperial control.
They stopped paying tribute, expanded their home territories, and formed anti-Mughal alliances to establish near-autonomous kingdoms.
Explanation:
Alienated by Aurangzeb's harsh policies and the revival of the Jaziya tax, leaders like Ajit Singh and Jai Singh II capitalized on the weak center to expand their influence from Delhi to Surat. This reclamation of territory further fragmented the political map of India, setting the stage for regional modernization.
Battle of Karnal
Explanation:
Nadir Shah invaded India in 1738-39 and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Mughal army at the Battle of Karnal in February 1739, taking Emperor Muhammad Shah prisoner.
His religious orthodoxy, specifically the reimposition of the Jaziya tax and aggressive campaigns against regional and religious identities.
Explanation:
Aurangzeb's reversal of Akbar's inclusive policies alienated crucial medieval allies like the Rajputs, and fueled the rise of militant resistance among the Sikhs, Jats, and Marathas. When Aurangzeb died in 1707, his successors inherited a society deeply fractured by these divisive socio-religious policies. This alienation catalyzed the emergence of formidable regional kingdoms, irrevocably fragmenting the medieval empire and leaving the subcontinent politically vulnerable to modern European imperialism.
Murshid Quli Khan.
Explanation:
Originally the Diwan-Subahdar of Bengal, Murshid Quli Khan streamlined revenue collection through the Ijarah system and demanded security bonds from leaseholders. This financial independence detached Bengal from the crumbling medieval center, making it a lucrative target for the British East India Company's modern imperial ambitions.
Ahmad Shah Abdali (Ahmad Shah Durrani)
Explanation:
Ahmad Shah Abdali, who took over the eastern parts of Nadir Shah's empire, launched multiple destructive raids on North India, capturing Punjab, Multan, and Delhi.
Prince Muazzam (Bahadur Shah I)
Explanation:
Prince Muazzam, the eldest son of Aurangzeb and governor of Kabul, defeated his brothers Muhammad Azam Shah and Muhammad Kambakhsh to ascend the throne as Bahadur Shah I.
Muhammad Shah
Explanation:
Roshan Akhtar ascended the throne as Muhammad Shah (ruled 1719-1748) and was popularly called 'Rangeela' because of his luxurious habits, lack of administrative focus, and patronage of dancers.
Martanda Varma modernized his army with European discipline, brought major economic reforms, and successfully defeated and expelled the Dutch East India Company from the Malabar coast, consolidating Travancore as a powerful, sovereign coastal state.
Explanation:
Travancore, which remained outside the Mughal sphere, became a major power under Martanda Varma (and his successor Rama Varma). By modernizing the military, controlling the lucrative pepper trade, and defeating the Dutch at the Battle of Colachel, he established complete regional hegemony.
Although Alivardi Khan legalized his usurpation of the throne by paying a large initial sum to the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah, he completely ceased paying any regular annual tribute to the center, operating as an absolute sovereign ruler.
Explanation:
Under Alivardi Khan, Bengal broke its tributary relations with the Mughal center. However, his administration was severely strained by constant Maratha incursions, forcing him in 1751 to cede a large territory of Orissa and agree to pay Chauth to the Marathas to secure peace.
The Marathas' aggressive policy of Chauth exactions and indiscriminate plunder of North Indian territories had alienated other regional Hindu and Muslim powers, leaving them isolated during the clash with Abdali.
Explanation:
The sources point out that the Marathas' policy of indiscriminate plunder and Chauth collection estranged both Muslim and Hindu powers like the Jats and Rajputs. Consequently, despite Suraj Mal Jat's initial presence, the Maratha commanders failed to build a united front, leading to their catastrophic defeat.
Nadir Shah was attracted by India's legendary wealth to rescue his bankrupt Persian Empire, and he took advantage of India's loose, neglected defenses on the northwest frontier and the deep political disunity among the Mughal nobles.
Explanation:
The sources mention that a bankrupt Persian Empire found an easy prey in the weak Mughal rule, which had neglected its northwestern frontier defences. The mutual jealousy among Mughal nobles also prevented a coordinated defense, leading to the crushing defeat of the Mughal army at the Battle of Karnal in 1739.
Muhammad Shah 'Rangeela' (1719-1748).
Explanation:
Installed by the Sayyid brothers, Muhammad Shah's luxurious lifestyle and weak central administration allowed provincial governors to declare de facto independence. This period effectively transitioned India from a unified medieval empire to a fragmented landscape of successor states, paving the way for eventual European conquest.
The crisis arose due to a massive increase in the number of mansabdars and amirs without a corresponding increase in the availability of land (Khalisa and Jagir), leading to a severe shortage of productive jagirs to allocate.
Explanation:
As more nobles were appointed, there was no more land left that could be allotted as jagirs. To satisfy the amirs, the government artificially inflated the estimated income of jagirs on paper, which angered the nobility when actual collections failed to match the records, and drove the peasantry to distress due to high tax exactions.
Saadat Khan, also known as Burhan-ul-Mulk.
Explanation:
A leader of the Irani faction who helped overthrow the Sayyid brothers, Saadat Khan was appointed Governor of Awadh. By establishing hereditary rule, he and his successors like Safdar Jung shifted political and cultural gravity away from Delhi, reflecting the broader 18th-century transition towards regional independence.
It allowed them to act as mercenaries and political manipulators, turning commercial trade into territorial conquest.
Explanation:
The constant warfare and lack of administrative unity among successor states like Bengal and the Carnatic provided fertile ground for the British and French East India Companies. Exploiting these divisions, the British gradually transformed from a trading corporation into the paramount political power, marking the definitive shift to modern colonial India.
The death of Emperor Aurangzeb.
Explanation:
Aurangzeb's death in 1707 sparked a devastating war of succession among his sons (Muazzam, Azam, and Kam Bakhsh). The absence of a definitive law of primogeniture meant that subsequent transfers of power drained the empire's military and financial resources. This internal fragmentation marked the end of medieval Mughal hegemony and the beginning of modern India, characterized by the rise of independent regional states that European powers eventually exploited.
The nobility transformed from loyal military commanders into powerful 'king-makers' who manipulated weak emperors for personal and factional gains.
Explanation:
Following Aurangzeb's death, the frequent succession crises allowed noble factions (such as the Turanis, Iranis, and Hindustanis) to usurp real political power, as seen with Zulfiqar Khan and the Sayyid Brothers. This fundamental shift destroyed the medieval absolute monarchy. The resulting political instability and decentralized authority created a fragmented political theater, a defining characteristic of India's transition to the modern colonial era.
The Maratha chief Raghunath Rao captured Punjab and expelled Abdali's son and supreme agent from Delhi. This direct challenge to Afghan authority angered Ahmad Shah Abdali, who returned to India to seek revenge and defeat the Marathas.
Explanation:
In 1757, Abdali had recognized Alamgir II as the nominal emperor and Najib-ud-Daula as Mir Bakshi. When Raghunath Rao expelled Najib-ud-Daula and captured Punjab in 1758, Abdali launched his campaign, culminating in the historic Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.
The Third Battle of Panipat, fought against Ahmad Shah Abdali.
Explanation:
The Marathas, despite their martial prowess, were numerically disadvantaged and defeated by Abdali's forces. This catastrophic loss not only shattered Maratha dreams of replacing the Mughals but also prolonged the fragmentation of Indian polity, directly facilitating the modern British colonial conquest.
Without a strict rule of primogeniture (where the eldest son automatically succeeds to the throne), every succession became a violent, highly destabilizing war of succession among the princes, depleting the empire's military strength and treasury.
Explanation:
The sources state that the lack of primogeniture led to recurrent wars of succession. These conflicts became increasingly acute and, rather than being decided by royal merit, were exploited by ambitious nobles who used the princes as puppets to advance their own factions.
The battle did not decide who would rule India, but rather who would not. By shattering the Maratha dream of an all-India empire and decimating their top military leadership, it created a power vacuum that directly facilitated the rise of the British East India Company.
Explanation:
The decimation of Maratha prestige and the subsequent death of Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao broke the centralized control of the Peshwa over the Maratha Confederacy. While the Mughals and Marathas lay exhausted, the British, having secured Bengal, used this opportunity to consolidate their power.
By forcing the Mughals to cede vital territories like Punjab and Multan, and placing an Afghan caretaker over the Mughal sovereign.
Explanation:
Abdali, Nadir Shah's successor, persistently assaulted Delhi, extracting heavy tributes and territories to buy peace. In 1757, he even appointed a caretaker over Emperor Alamgir II, demonstrating the complete loss of medieval imperial sovereignty and creating a power vacuum that facilitated the rise of the Marathas and the British.
Instead of serving the empire, the nobles engaged in bitter personal rivalries to control the weak emperors and capture lucrative offices, converting the imperial court into a playground for factional politics and assassinations.
Explanation:
The degradation of the nobility meant that the amirs became greedy and power-seeking. For example, the Hindustani group (led by the Sayyid brothers) acted as king-makers who assassinated Farrukhsiyar, while the Turani group (led by Nizam-ul-Mulk) clashed with them, ultimately leading to the breakup of the administrative center.
1707 CE
Explanation:
The death of Aurangzeb in 1707 CE led to a war of succession and the rise of weak successors, initiating the decline of the Mughal Empire.
It created a scarcity of profitable land grants (jagirs), leading to intense factionalism and devastating competition among the nobility.
Explanation:
Aurangzeb's prolonged Deccan campaigns expanded the nobility without a proportional increase in profitable land. By his death in 1707, this structural weakness forced ambitious nobles into fierce factional struggles for resources, paralyzing the central administration. The resulting collapse of the Mansabdari-Jagirdari system eroded medieval state control, directly enabling the rise of autonomous regional powers like Hyderabad and Bengal, paving the way for British colonial expansion.
Zulfikar Khan introduced Ijarah to stabilize the collapsing imperial finances by auctioning the right to collect land revenue to the highest bidding contractors. Its long-term consequence was the severe oppression of peasants and the destruction of traditional land revenue systems.
Explanation:
Under the traditional Todar Mal settlement, revenue was collected based on actual cultivation and measurement. By replacing this with the contractual Ijarah system under Jahandar Shah, the state secured quick cash but left the peasantry at the mercy of greedy revenue contractors who focused entirely on short-term profit.
Churaman and Badan Singh
Explanation:
Following early rebellions by Gokul and Rajaram, the Jat state of Bharatpur was formally established by Churaman and Badan Singh.
Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk
Explanation:
Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk was appointed governor of Awadh by the Mughals in 1722. He suppressed rebellious zamindars and laid the foundation of an autonomous state.
They faced extreme impoverishment due to exorbitant tax demands from the state, landlords, and revenue farmers.
Explanation:
The burden of sustaining the opulent lifestyles of the nobility and the constant warfare fell entirely on the cultivators, who rarely reaped the benefits of their labor. This severe agrarian distress weakened the economic foundation of the medieval state and left the population vulnerable to the subsequent exploitations of British rule.
The regional states lacked unified coordination and were locked in constant, fratricidal warfare. Furthermore, they failed to modernize their financial, administrative, and scientific structures, remaining backward in technology compared to the British.
Explanation:
Although states like Mysore and the Marathas were militarily powerful, they operated on rent-extracting models and failed to build cohesive national institutions. Their lack of scientific innovation, combined with the superior naval power, organized financial system, and diplomatic divide-and-rule tactics of the British, led to their eventual subjugation.
The Jagirdari Crisis.
Explanation:
Expanding the empire into the Deccan increased the number of nobles without adding proportionally profitable lands, creating a scarcity of jagirs. This structural deficit forced nobles to fiercely compete and exploit the peasantry, breaking down the Mansabdari-Jagirdari system which was the administrative backbone of the medieval Mughal state.
Third Battle of Panipat
Explanation:
Ahmad Shah Abdali marched back to India and defeated the Marathas under Sadashiv Rao Bhau in the Third Battle of Panipat on January 14, 1761, shattering their dream of an all-India empire.
The establishment of the Khalsa.
Explanation:
In response to Mughal persecution, the Khalsa mandated military readiness and the carrying of weapons, fundamentally altering the Sikh community's character. This militarization fueled their armed resistance, leading to the creation of an independent Sikh kingdom that actively contributed to the dismantling of the Mughal Empire in the north-west.
Baji Rao I.
Explanation:
Serving as Peshwa from 1720 to 1740, Baji Rao I utilized guerrilla tactics to conquer regions up to Agra, defeating imperial forces and rivals like the Nizam. This aggressive expansionism severely eroded the Mughal state's territorial integrity and marked the rise of decentralized, confederacy-based regional powers.
The Hindustani group.
Explanation:
Comprising Indian-born Muslims, the Hindustani faction led by Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali manipulated the throne, installing emperors like Farrukhsiyar, Rafi-ud-Darajat, and Rafi-ud-Daula. Their dominance illustrated the total collapse of the emperor's absolute authority, a hallmark of the transition away from medieval autocratic rule.
Nizam-ul-Mulk (Chin Qilich Khan / Asaf Jah)
Explanation:
Nizam-ul-Mulk, a leader of the Turani nobility, helped Muhammad Shah kill Syed Hussain Ali Khan in 1720 and Syed Abdullah Khan in 1722. In 1724, he left the court and founded the state of Hyderabad.
Alivardi Khan
Explanation:
Alivardi Khan became Nawab in 1740 after killing Sarfaraz Khan. He legalised his position by paying a large sum to the emperor Muhammad Shah, but ceased paying any further tribute, marking a virtual break.
Chauth
Explanation:
Chauth represented 25% (one-fourth) of the gross revenue collected from non-Maratha territories in exchange for protection from external invasions, while Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% tax.
Aurangzeb's prolonged Deccan military campaign drained the imperial treasury, destroyed the empire's finest soldiers, and severely undermined imperial prestige. By keeping the emperor away from Delhi for decades, it also led to administrative neglect in Northern India.
Explanation:
The sources note that the Deccan expedition caused the destruction of the best soldiers, drained wealth, and undermined Mughal prestige beyond repair, making the administration in other parts of the empire vulnerable and weak.