17.6 Objectives, Methods, and Demands of Early Congress

1. Context & Foundation

The birth of the Indian National Congress in 1885 marked the transition of the Indian national movement from scattered, localized grievances into a structured, unified, and pan-Indian struggle. To understand why the early Congress chose a highly cautious, peaceful, and constitutional path, one must look at the immense military and administrative might of the post-1857 British Raj. Having brutally crushed the Great Revolt, the colonial state operated with absolute authority and deep suspicion toward any form of native organization. The early nationalist leaders—primarily English-educated urban professionals, lawyers, doctors, and journalists—realized that any attempt at a sudden, violent revolution would be met with immediate and total military suppression.

This reality shaped the psychology of the early Congress, historically referred to as the Moderates. These pioneers, highly influenced by Western liberal philosophies, believed in British traditions of justice, fair play, and representative governance. They operated under the assumption that the British public and Parliament were fundamentally well-intentioned but simply unaware of the true extent of Indian suffering and economic exploitation. Thus, they formulated a dual strategy: first, to create a strong national consciousness and politically educate the native population; and second, to present reasoned, evidence-based demands to the colonial government, hoping to secure gradual reforms.

The human drama of this phase lay in the delicate political tightrope these early leaders had to walk. Dismissed by imperialists like Viceroy Lord Dufferin as a "microscopic minority" and later criticized by radical nationalists for practicing "political mendicancy" (begging), these leaders were actually laying the institutional and intellectual foundations of the modern Indian nation. They took on the monumental task of organizing an incredibly diverse, multilingual, and caste-divided subcontinent into a single political constituency. By utilizing constitutional methods to systematically dismantle the moral and economic legitimacy of British rule, they prepared the ground for the mass revolutionary movements of the twentieth century.

2. Detailed Study Notes

A. Core Objectives of the Early Congress

At its inception, the early Congress adopted a highly disciplined, long-term approach to nation-building, focusing on these fundamental goals:

• Consolidation of National Unity: To foster a shared sense of Indian nationhood, transcending deep-seated regional, linguistic, and religious divisions.

• Political Education and Mobilization: To arouse national consciousness, familiarize the public with modern democratic principles, and train citizens in the art of representative politics.

• Formulating Nationalist Ideology: To develop and propagate a systematic, anti-colonial critique of British rule, particularly exposing the economic mechanisms of imperialist exploitation.

• Acting as a Constitutional Channel: To present popular grievances and demands before the British government through peaceful, legal, and institutional channels.

B. The "3 Ps" Methods of Political Work

The early Congress strictly rejected violence and extra-constitutional agitations, relying instead on a methodology characterized by their critics as the Three Ps:

                          ┌──────────────────────────────────────┐
                          │     THE THREE Ps METHODOLOGY         │
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                                             │
         ┌───────────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────┐
         ▼                                   ▼                                   ▼
      PRAYER                              PETITION                            PROTEST
• Appeals to British justice.        • Detailed, written memoranda       • Constitutional meetings,
• Formulating resolutions.           • Submitted to the Viceroy          • Emotive press campaigns,
• Trust in liberal values.           • Lobbying within British Parliament. • Peaceful public assemblies.

• Lobbying and Propaganda Abroad: The Moderates placed immense emphasis on mobilizing British public opinion. In 1889, the British Committee of the Indian National Congress was established in London, which published the influential journal India to keep British policymakers informed of Indian grievances.

• Direct Parliamentary Representation: Moderate pioneer Dadabhai Naoroji took the struggle directly to the heart of the empire. He was elected to the British House of Commons in 1892, representing Finsbury Central as a member of the Liberal Party, making him the first Asian to sit in the British Parliament.

C. Core Demands of the Moderates

The demands of the early Congress can be categorized into four distinct administrative, constitutional, and economic dimensions:

1. Constitutional Demands

• Expansion of Legislative Councils: Demanded that both the Imperial and Provincial Legislative Councils be expanded with a significant increase in elected Indian representatives.

• Control Over Finances: Popularized the democratic slogan "No taxation without representation," demanding that Indian legislators be given real power to vote on and control the national budget.

• Self-Government Goal: Demanded the eventual granting of Swaraj (self-government) on the model of self-governing colonies like Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.

2. Administrative Demands

• Indianisation of Civil Services: Demanded that the elite Indian Civil Service (ICS) examinations be held simultaneously in India and England, and that the maximum age limit for candidates be raised. This was a direct campaign to fight colonial racism and stop the massive financial drain caused by the high salaries and pensions of European officers being remitted back to Britain.

• Separation of Powers: Demanded the complete separation of the judiciary from the executive branch to prevent arbitrary administrative abuse of power.

• Welfare and Expenditure: Demanded a drastic reduction in military expenditure (which consumed nearly half of India's annual revenues at the time) and a matching increase in spending on education, public health, sanitation, and agricultural irrigation.

• Protection of Indentured Labor: Advocated for better working conditions and legal protections for Indian indentured laborers working in other British colonies, such as South Africa.

3. Economic Demands (The National Catalyst)

• Reduction of Land Revenue: Demanded a substantial reduction in the high land taxes levied on the impoverished peasantry and requested the extension of the Permanent Settlement to other parts of India to protect tenants from arbitrary enhancements.

• Abolition of the Salt Tax: Demanded the immediate repeal of the highly oppressive salt tax and the abolition of the government's monopoly over salt production, which severely affected the rural poor.

• Tariff Protection for Indian Industries: Demanded that the colonial government provide financial aid, technical education, and protective tariffs to safeguard nascent Indian cottage and modern industries from cheap British imports.

4. Defense of Civil Rights

• The early nationalists waged a relentless battle to protect basic civil liberties, including the freedom of speech, thought, association, and a free press. Whenever the Raj attempted to silence public opinion—such as through the arrest of Bal Gangadhar Tilak in 1897 or the deportation of the Natu brothers without trial—the Moderates organized massive public outcries.

D. The Economic Critique of Imperialism (The Greatest Achievement)

The most permanent and historically significant contribution of the Moderates was their systematic, scientific analysis of the political economy of British colonialism, known as Economic Nationalism:

• Dadabhai Naoroji (The Grand Old Man of India): Formulated the historic "Drain of Wealth" theory in his landmark 1901 book, Poverty and Un-British Rule in India. He demonstrated how India's surplus revenues and resources were systematically drained to Britain through "Home Charges" (including the expenses of the India Office in London, interest on public debt, and pensions of European officers) without any equivalent economic return.

• Ramesh Chandra Dutt (R.C. Dutt): Authored the monumental Economic History of India, demonstrating how British tariff and commercial policies had systematically decimated India's traditional artisanal and handloom industries (deindustrialization), over-burdening agriculture and making the country highly prone to devastating famines.

• Dinshaw Wacha and G. Subramaniya Iyer: Actively propagated these economic findings through regional newspapers and legislative debates, permanently destroying the colonial myth of the "White Man's Burden" and showing that British rule was the primary cause of India's grinding poverty.

E. Regional Deccan & Hyderabad State Connections

The intellectual, administrative, and political agitations of the early Congress had direct, corresponding developments within the Hyderabad State under Nizam VI, Mir Mahboob Ali Khan:

                         ┌──────────────────────────────────────┐
                         │   DECCAN INTELLECTUAL AWAKENING    │
                         └──────────────────┬───────────────────┘
                                            │
                                            ▼
                        [ Nizam College Educational Hub (1887) ]
                     Established under Dr. Aghornath Chattopadhyay,
                     producing Hyderabad's earliest progressive elite.
                                            │
                                            ▼
                        [ The Mulki vs. Non-Mulki Friction ]
                     Local subjects (Mulkis) agitating for civil service
                     employment rights, mirroring Indianisation campaigns.
                                            │
                                            ▼
                        [ Feudal Consultative "Safety Valves" ]
                     Qanoon-cha-Mubarak (1892) establishes the Legislative Council
                     as a conservative buffer to prevent popular unrest.

• The Mulki Struggle as a Parallel to Indianisation: The Moderates' intense campaign for the Indianisation of Civil Services to prevent the monopolization of high posts by Europeans found a direct parallel in Hyderabad. The rapid modernization of state departments under Sir Salar Jung I led to a massive influx of English-educated administrators from Northern India and Madras (known as Non-Mulkis). This created deep resentment among the local, traditional subjects (Mulkis), who found themselves excluded from state employment. The resulting Mulki agitations for protective civil service rules marked the birth of Hyderabad's modern regional political consciousness.

• The Nizam College Intellectual Circle: Higher Western education came to Hyderabad during the exact era of the Congress's foundation. Chaderghat High School was upgraded to Chaderghat College in 1881 and affiliated with Madras University. In 1887, it merged with the School of English to establish the prestigious Nizam College under its first principal, the renowned scientist and educationist Dr. Aghornath Chattopadhyay (father of Sarojini Naidu). Nizam College became the intellectual cradle of Hyderabad's earliest progressive reformist class, where local youths discussed the economic critiques of Dadabhai Naoroji and integrated Deccan political life with the broader national mainstream.

• The Qanoon-cha-Mubarak of 1892: The British strategy of introducing consultative legislative councils to act as buffers against popular unrest—as seen in the Indian Councils Act of 1892—was closely replicated in Hyderabad. In 1892, Nizam VI issued the historic royal decree known as the Qanoon-cha-Mubarak, establishing Hyderabad’s Legislative Council (Majlis-e-Qanooni) and Cabinet Council (Majlis-e-Aali). However, just like the British Councils, this body was heavily dominated by nobles and jagirdars, serving as a top-down, consultative "safety valve" that kept real democratic power out of the hands of the common subjects.

3. Quick Revision Cheat Sheet

• December 28, 1885: The Indian National Congress (INC) is formally established at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in Bombay with 72 delegates.

• A.O. Hume: A retired Scottish civil servant, recognized as the primary organizer and founder of the Congress.

• W.C. Bonnerjee: Unanimously elected as the first President of the Indian National Congress.

• The Three Ps: The core Moderate methodology consisting of Prayers, Petitions, and Protests within the limits of constitutional law.

• Indian Councils Act of 1892: The first major constitutional achievement of the Moderates; expanded councils and introduced a limited, indirect element of elections.

• "No Taxation Without Representation": The landmark democratic slogan adopted by the Moderates to demand legislative control over the national budget.

• Indianisation of Civil Services: The demand to hold ICS examinations simultaneously in India and England to fight racial exclusion and stop the economic drain.

• 1889: The British Committee of the INC is established in London, publishing the journal India to lobby British policymakers.

• 1892: Dadabhai Naoroji is elected to the British House of Commons representing Finsbury Central, becoming the first Asian MP.

• 1895: Appointment of the Welby Commission on Indian Expenditure in response to Moderate demands to reduce military spending.

• 1896 Calcutta Session: Presided over by Rahimtullah M. Sayani; the patriotic song Vande Mataram is sung for the first time, and the INC officially accepts the Drain of Wealth theory.

• 1901: Naoroji publishes Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, establishing the economic foundation of Indian nationalism.

• 1887 Nizam College Establishment: Dr. Aghornath Chattopadhyay is appointed as its first principal, initiating the modern intellectual and political awakening of Hyderabad.

• Qanoon-cha-Mubarak (1892): Constitutional charter issued by Nizam VI, Mir Mahboob Ali Khan, establishing Hyderabad's Legislative Council, mirroring the consultative, top-down reforms of British India.

4. Exam Strategy & PYQ Focus

High-Yield Focus Areas

• The Specific Provisions of the Indian Councils Act of 1892 (Extremely High Priority): state civil service and national exams consistently target the details of this Act to test your conceptual clarity. Memorize these precise provisions:

  • The Constitutional Expansion: Increased the number of additional non-official members in the Imperial Legislative Council to 10–16 members (maintained official majority).

  • The Legislative Powers: Entitled members to discuss the financial statement (budget) and ask questions, but they were strictly barred from voting on the budget or asking supplementary questions.

  • The Election Element: Introduced a highly limited, indirect system of recommendation through local bodies, but the word "election" was completely avoided in the text of the Act.

• The Moderate Leaders and Their Titles: SPSC papers frequently utilize match-the-following questions to test early nationalist figures. Ensure you can identify these key individuals:

  • Dadabhai Naoroji $\rightarrow$ "Grand Old Man of India" (first Asian MP, 1901 book on Drain theory).

  • Surendranath Banerjee $\rightarrow$ "Indian Burke" (founded the Indian Association in 1876, edited The Bengalee, wrote A Nation in the Making).

  • Gopal Krishna Gokhale $\rightarrow$ Political Guru of Gandhi (founded the Servants of India Society in 1905, presided over the 1905 Benares Session).

  • Pherozeshah Mehta $\rightarrow$ "Lion of Bombay" (staunch Moderate who blocked the re-entry of Tilak and Extremists until his death in 1915).

• The "First Four Sessions" Grid: SPSC and UPSC papers frequently test the chronology of the earliest sessions. Master this exact grid:

  • 1885, Bombay $\rightarrow$ W.C. Bonnerjee (Inaugural session, 72 delegates).

  • 1886, Calcutta $\rightarrow$ Dadabhai Naoroji (First Parsi President, merger of National Conference).

  • 1887, Madras $\rightarrow$ Badruddin Tyabji (First Muslim President, appeal to Muslims).

  • 1888, Allahabad $\rightarrow$ George Yule (First English President, symbol of early British liberal support).

• The Economic Critique Scholars: Ensure you can identify Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutt, and Dinshaw Wacha as the core intellectual trio behind the economic critique of British imperialism, a highly high-yielding detail for statement-based questions.

• Dr. Aghornath Chattopadhyay's Deccan Context: For regional Telangana history integration, remember that Dr. Aghornath Chattopadhyay was the first principal of Nizam College (1887). SPSC papers often connect his progressive circle with the early dissemination of Congress-led nationalist ideas in Hyderabad State.

What to Skip / Low-Yield

• Minor, non-political biographical details of the British administrative clerks who worked in the London India Office in the late nineteenth century.

• The micro-expenditure schedules of individual provincial municipal library buildings constructed during Lord Lansdowne’s administration.

How to Study This Topic

1. Construct a "Legislative Devolution Matrix": On a single study card, draw a 3-column table comparing the Acts of 1861, 1892, and 1909 across: Executive representation, Legislative council size, Voting rights, and Budget debating powers. This comparative matrix is a bulletproof shield against statement-based traps.

2. Flowchart the "Economic Drain" Argument: Draw a visual flowchart tracing: $$\text{Taxes collected from Indian peasants} \rightarrow \text{Remitted to Britain as "Home Charges" (salaries, pensions, public debt interest)} \rightarrow \text{British capital returns to India as loans (railways, telegraphs)} \rightarrow \text{India pays guaranteed interest on British capital} \rightarrow \text{Complete impoverishment and recurrent famines}$$ This sequence clarifies the economic critique logically and makes descriptive answers easy to draft.

5. Chronology & Broader Context (Past – Present – Future)

Crown-era policy under the GOI Act of 1858 establishes direct British governance (1858)
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Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose found the Indian Association of Calcutta (1876)
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Lord Lytton reduces the ICS age limit, holds the Delhi Durbar, and gags the press (1876–1878)
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The Ilbert Bill controversy exposes deep-seated British racial prejudice (1883)
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The Indian Association sponsors the first All-India National Conference in Calcutta (Dec 1883)
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THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS IS FORMALLY ESTABLISHED AT BOMBAY (DECEMBER 28, 1885)
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Surendranath Banerjee's National Conference formally merges with the Congress (1886)
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Dr. Aghornath Chattopadhyay is appointed first principal of the newly formed Nizam College (1887)
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The British Parliament passes the Indian Councils Act of 1892, introducing indirect elections
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National Song "Vande Mataram" is sung for the first time at the Calcutta INC Session (1896)
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Dadabhai Naoroji publishes his landmark economic critique "Poverty and Un-British Rule in India" (1901)
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Lord Curzon aggressively partitions Bengal on communal and linguistic lines (1905)
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The Swadeshi Movement begins, marking the transition from Moderate to Extremist politics

• Pre-Context:

  • Pre-1885: Prior to the mid-1880s, political activity in India was fragmented and highly localized, dominated by regional organizations like the British Indian Association in Calcutta, the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, and the Madras Mahajan Sabha. These bodies represented province-specific or class-specific interests (particularly landowners and wealthy merchants). However, the aggressive, imperialist administrative measures of the late 1870s—such as Lord Lytton's Vernacular Press Act of 1878 and the bitter racial fallout of the Ilbert Bill controversy of 1883—convinced Indian leaders that regional agitations were no longer sufficient, paving the direct path for a unified, pan-Indian national organization.

• Concurrent Events:

  • The Unification of Italy and Germany (1860s–1870s): Raging globally, the rise of powerful, ethnically unified nation-states in Europe served as a potent intellectual blueprint for early Indian nationalists, who translated the biographies of Italian patriots like Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi to popularize the concept of national unification.

  • The Irish Home Rule Movement (1870s onwards): Raging simultaneously, the Irish tenant farmers' organized agitation and demands for self-rule under Charles Stewart Parnell were closely observed by early Indian nationalists, who adopted similar constitutional pressure strategies in their struggles against British imperialism.

• Post-Context:

  • Post-1905: The institutionalization of the Congress transformed the national movement. Under the leadership of the Moderates, the Congress utilized constitutional methods to construct a brilliant economic critique of British rule, culminating in the passage of the Indian Councils Act of 1892. Ultimately, the slow progress of these constitutional agitations, combined with the aggressive policies of Lord Curzon, directly led to the rise of militant nationalism (Extremism) in 1905, transforming the Congress from a middle-class pressure group into a massive, popular national movement that eventually secured India's independence in 1947.