13.5 20th Century Peasant Movements: Kisan Sabha, Eka Movement, Tebhaga, and Telangana Armed Struggle

1. Context & Foundation

The landscape of twentieth-century British India witnessed a profound shift as the agrarian countryside transformed from a scene of localized, sporadic protests into the main battlefield of organized mass resistance. For over a century, the Indian peasantry had been subjected to the clinical and relentless extraction of the colonial state, which operated in absolute alliance with oppressive native landlords, taluqdars, and moneylenders. Cultivators were routinely trapped in generational debt, stripped of their customary land rights, and subjected to arbitrary evictions. However, the arrival of modern political consciousness, the spread of Marxist and socialist ideologies, and the organizational efforts of the nationalist intelligentsia provided the spark that finally united these scattered agrarian grievances into formidable, coordinated movements.

The human drama of this era unfolded across four major epicenters, each reflecting unique tensions and strategic execution. In the United Provinces, the Kisan Sabha and Eka Movements emerged as direct rebellions against the high-handed exactions and summary evictions levied by the Awadh taluqdars. Here, charismatic peasant leaders and depressed-class activists mobilized the tenantry to take sacred vows of non-cooperation and solidarity, successfully bypassing traditional feudal authority. Decades later, on the eve of independence, the fertile fields of Bengal became the stage for the radical Tebhaga Movement, where sharecroppers, inspired by communist cadres, rose in a militant campaign to demand their rightful two-thirds share of the harvest.

Simultaneously, the princely state of Hyderabad witnessed the Telangana Armed Struggle, the largest and most intense peasant guerrilla war in modern Indian history. Oppressed by the autocratic Nizam and brutal feudal deshmukhs, the Telangana peasantry organized armed village defense units, routed private fascist militias, and carried out revolutionary land redistributions. These struggles proved that the Indian peasant was no longer a passive victim of colonial-feudal exploitation, but an active, revolutionary agent whose sacrifices paved the way for radical land reforms in post-independence India.

2. Detailed Study Notes

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                         │   20th CENTURY PEASANT MOBILIZATION    │
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  KISAN SABHA (1918-22)               TEBHAGA MOVEMENT (1946)             TELANGANA REBELLION (1946-51)
• UP Kisan Sabha founded 1918.      • Bengal sharecroppers campaign.    • Anti-Nizam & anti-feudal war.
• Led by Baba Ramchandra & Nehru.   • Demanded 2/3rds crop share.       • Guerrilla fight against Razakars.
• Opposed summary evictions.        • Slogan: "Nij khamare dhan tolo".  • Led to the Bhoodan Movement.

A. The Kisan Sabha Movement (1918–1922)

• The Agrarian Context: Following the Revolt of 1857, the British restored the lands and absolute privileges of the Awadh taluqdars, consolidating a powerful, loyalist feudal lobby. Cultivators were subjected to exorbitant rents, illegal levies, renewal fees (nazrana), and the constant threat of summary eviction (bedakhali). World War I further worsened their plight by causing a severe spike in the prices of daily necessities.

• The UP Kisan Sabha (February 1918):

  • Founders: Established by Gauri Shankar Mishra and Indra Narayan Dwivedi, with the active support of Madan Mohan Malaviya. By June 1919, the organization had expanded to nearly 450 branches.

  • Key Organizers: Seasoned activists like Jhinguri Singh, Durgapal Singh, and Baba Ramchandra (a Fiji-returned indentured laborer) spearheaded grassroot mobilization. Baba Ramchandra played a critical role in inviting Jawaharlal Nehru to visit Oudh villages, establishing a historic bridge between the urban Congress and the rural masses.

• The Awadh Kisan Sabha (October 1920):

  • Formed due to emerging tactical differences within the nationalist ranks, with Baba Ramchandra as the chief organizer.

  • The Program: Instructed the peasantry to refuse to till bedakhali (evicted) land, refuse to provide forced unpaid labor (hari and begar), and resolve all local agrarian disputes through village panchayats.

• The Militant Shift (January 1921):

  • Frustrated by prolonged exploitation, the peasant masses bypassed formal non-violent constraints. Mobs launched systematic attacks on taluqdars' houses, looted local bazaars, and ransacked granaries. The main centers of this violent upsurge were Rai Bareilly, Faizabad, and Sultanpur.

  • Outcome: The movement was suppressed through severe British military-police repression and the subsequent enactment of the Awadh Rent (Amendment) Act, which addressed some of the tenants' immediate security concerns.

B. The Eka Movement / Unity Movement (1921–1922)

• The Triggers: Erupted in the northern districts of the United Provinces (Hardoi, Bahraich, and Sitapur). The primary grievances were:

  1. The extraction of rents that were generally 50 percent higher than the officially recorded rents.

  2. The oppressive and corrupt practices of revenue collectors (thekadars).

  3. Severe agricultural distress caused by the Spanish flu pandemic, prolonged droughts, and price rises.

• The Leadership: Led by grassroot, lower-caste leaders like Madari Pasi and some small, impoverished zamindars. Madari Pasi rejected the strict, moderate non-violent approach of the Congress-Khilafat leadership, advocating instead for a militant defense of peasant rights.

• The Eka Vow: Peasants gathered in religious assemblies and took solemn vows to:

  1. Pay only the officially recorded rents on time.

  2. Refuse to perform forced labor (begar) for landlords.

  3. Demand formal written receipts for all rent payments.

  4. Use village ponds freely and graze cattle in state-reserved jungles without paying illegal fees.

• Outcome: The movement's turn toward militancy alienated the mainstream Congress leadership. The British authorities easily isolated and crushed the movement through brutal force by March 1922.

C. The Tebhaga Movement (1946–1947)

• The Agrarian Context: In rural Bengal, the traditional agrarian structure operated on the adhiari (50-50) sharecropping system, where tenant sharecroppers (bargardars or adhiars) had to hand over half of their total harvest to the landlords (jotedars).

• The Core Demand: Formally initiated by the Bengal Provincial Kisan Sabha (the peasants' wing of the Communist Party of India) in September 1946. Based on the recommendations of the Floud Commission (1938), the sharecroppers demanded that the landlord's share be reduced from one-half to one-third, leaving two-thirds of the produce with the actual cultivator.

• Key Leaders: Bhowani Sen, Hare Krishna Konar, Benoy Chowdhury, Sunil Sen, and Ila Mitra.

• The Struggle & Slogans:

  • The Battle Cry: "Nij khamare dhan tolo" (take the harvested paddy to the sharecropper's own threshing floor instead of the jotedar's house to prevent illegal exactions).

  • Nari Bahinis: Frontline women's brigades organized by tribal and peasant women who fought off police patrols and defended their grain reserves with domestic weapons.

  • Geographical Focus: Concentrated heavily in North Bengal, particularly among the Rajbanshis (a low caste of tribal origin) and Muslim sharecroppers, showing complete communal unity.

• Outcome: The Muslim League ministry introduced the Bargadari Bill, limiting the landlord's share to one-third. However, the movement dissipated in 1947 due to a severe colonial crackdown, the Hindu Mahasabha's campaign for a separate Bengal, and the outbreak of communal riots in Calcutta.

D. The Telangana Armed Struggle (1946–1951)

• The Feudal Oppression: Hyderabad State, ruled by the autocratic Asaf Jahi Nizam, was characterized by extreme feudal exploitation. A small Urdu-speaking Muslim elite and powerful Hindu regional intermediaries (deshmukhs, jagirdars, and doras) exercised absolute control over the land. The backward-caste and tribal peasantry were subjected to:

  1. Exorbitant, manipulated land taxes and arbitrary evictions.

  2. The brutal system of Vetti (forced, unpaid labor), where peasants had to work on the fields of the landlords for free.

  3. A total lack of basic civil liberties and political rights.

• The Guerrilla Uprising:

  1. The Spark (July 1946): Erupted in the Nalgonda district (Jangaon taluq) when the private thugs of a powerful deshmukh murdered Doddi Komaraiah, a local peasant militant.

  2. The Mobilization: Led by the Communist Party of India (CPI) and the Andhra Maha Sabha (AMS). Peasant guerrillas formed village sanghams (committees) and organized armed units.

  3. The Fight: Peasants used traditional weapons like slings, lathis, and chili powder alongside captured firearms to fight off the landlords' private armies and the Nizam's brutal paramilitary force, the Razakars. Over 3,000 villages were liberated, 10,000 acres of land were distributed, and the Vetti system was completely abolished.

• Indian Intervention (September 1948): Following the Indian military's entry under Operation Polo, the Nizam's forces and the Razakars surrendered, and Hyderabad was formally integrated into the Indian Union. The communist guerrillas, however, continued their fight against the Indian Army until 1951, before formally laying down their arms.

• The Legacy & The Bhoodan Movement (April 1951):

  1. To address the severe land inequality highlighted by the Telangana armed struggle through peaceful, non-violent means, Gandhi's disciple Acharya Vinoba Bhave launched the voluntary Bhoodan (Land-Gift) Movement from Pochampally (Telangana) on April 18, 1951.

  2. The first land donation of 100 acres was made by the wealthy landlord Ram Chandra Reddy for redistribution to landless Dalit and tribal laborers. This movement acted as a peaceful alternative to communist armed militancy.

E. Comparative Matrix of 20th Century Peasant Movements

3. Quick Revision Cheat Sheet

• UP Kisan Sabha: Founded in February 1918 by Gauri Shankar Mishra, Indra Narayan Dwivedi, and Madan Mohan Malaviya.

• Awadh Kisan Sabha: Established in October 1920 under the leadership of Baba Ramchandra.

• Jawaharlal Nehru: Directly invited by Baba Ramchandra to visit Awadh villages to organize the peasantry.

• Bedakhali: The practice of summary eviction used by taluqdars, which was resisted by the Kisan Sabhas.

• Eka Movement: Launched in late 1921 in Hardoi, Bahraich, and Sitapur under Madari Pasi.

• Eka Vow: A collective oath to pay only recorded rent, demand written receipts, and refuse forced labor.

• Tebhaga Share: A campaign demanding two-thirds (2/3rd) share of the crop for sharecroppers, based on the Floud Commission recommendations.

• "Nij khamare dhan tolo": The Tebhaga slogan meaning "take the harvested paddy to our own threshing floors".

• Nari Bahinis: Brave women's defense brigades organized during the Tebhaga Movement to resist police patrols.

• Doddi Komaraiah: The murder of this peasant militant in Jangaon taluq in July 1946 triggered the Telangana Armed Struggle.

• Razakars: The fanatical private military of the Hyderabad Nizam that committed atrocities against the Telangana peasantry.

• Operation Polo: The code name for the Indian military action in September 1948 that integrated Hyderabad into India.

• Pochampally (April 18, 1951): The Telangana village from where Acharya Vinoba Bhave launched the Bhoodan Movement.

• Ram Chandra Reddy: The first donor of the Bhoodan Movement, who gifted 100 acres of land to landless agricultural laborers.

4. Exam Strategy & PYQ Focus

High-Yield Focus Areas

• The "Eka Movement" District Mapping (Extremely High Priority): TSPSC and other state civil service exams frequently target the exact districts of this movement. Always remember that the Eka Movement (1921–22) was centered in Hardoi, Bahraich, and Sitapur in the northern districts of Uttar Pradesh, not in Bengal or Punjab.

• The "Awadh Rent (Amendment) Act" Connection: Note that the peasant unrest led by the Awadh Kisan Sabha was resolved and pacified by the British through the passage of the Awadh Rent (Amendment) Act, a common target for statement-based questions.

• Madari Pasi's Social Background: Examiners often focus on the leadership of the Eka Movement. Emphasize that Madari Pasi belonged to the depressed class (lower caste), which lent the movement a radical, grassroots, and anti-feudal character.

• Tebhaga Percentage Demands: SPSC exams consistently test the mathematical crop-share shift. Sharecroppers demanded a two-thirds (2/3rd) share for themselves and a one-third (1/3rd) share for the landlords (jotedars), changing the traditional 50-50 share system.

• Doddi Komaraiah and the Telangana Spark: For exams focusing on the Deccan, memorize that the murder of Doddi Komaraiah in Jangaon (Nalgonda) in July 1946 was the exact spark that triggered the Telangana Armed Struggle.

• The Bhoodan Movement Chronology: Memorize the exact date and location of the Bhoodan launch: April 18, 1951, from Pochampally village in Telangana, with Ram Chandra Reddy making the first land donation to Acharya Vinoba Bhave.

What to Skip / Low-Yield

• The minute, day-to-day administrative lists of grain quantities stored in individual taluqdari granaries in Rai Bareilly in 1921.

• Esoteric details regarding the individual printing press machinery used to publish the Kishan Bulletin in Lucknow.

How to Study This Topic

1. Construct a "20th Century Peasant Timeline": Draw a sequential visual flowchart: UP Kisan Sabha (1918) $\rightarrow$ Awadh Kisan Sabha (1920) $\rightarrow$ Eka Movement (1921) $\rightarrow$ Tebhaga Movement (1946) $\rightarrow$ Telangana Armed Struggle (1946–51) $\rightarrow$ Bhoodan Movement (1951). This helps you solve chronological ordering questions effortlessly.

2. Analyze the Regional Feudal Link: Trace how the Asaf Jahi Nizam’s absolute reliance on local Hindu deshmukhs and doras created the severe Vetti (forced labor) system in Telangana, and how the Andhra Maha Sabha successfully mobilized the peasantry to overthrow this feudal structure.

5. Chronology & Broader Context (Past – Present – Future)

Permanent Settlement (1793) and Ryotwari (1820) establish colonial land exploitation
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World War I causes extreme economic distress and food price hikes (1914-1918)
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UP KISAN SABHA FOUNDED BY GAURI SHANKAR MISHRA & INDRA NARAYAN DWIVEDI (FEB 1918)
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Baba Ramchandra organizes Awadh peasants ──> Awadh Kisan Sabha formed (OCT 1920)
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Agrarian Riots break out in Rai Bareilly, Faizabad, and Sultanpur (JAN 1921)
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EKA MOVEMENT LAUNCHED BY MADARI PASI IN HARDOI, BAHRAICH, AND SITAPUR (LATE 1921)
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British pass the Awadh Rent (Amendment) Act to pacify Oudh peasants (1922)
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All India Kisan Sabha formed at the Lucknow Congress Session (APRIL 1936)
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TEBHAGA MOVEMENT LAUNCHED BY BENGAL PROVINCIAL KISAN SABHA (SEPTEMBER 1946)
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TELANGANA PEASANT ARMED STRUGGLE ERUPTS AFTER KOMARAIAH'S MURDER (JULY 1946)
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Operation Polo integrates Hyderabad into India; Razakar militia defeated (SEPT 1948)
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Acharya Vinoba Bhave launches Bhoodan Movement from Pochampally, Telangana (APRIL 18, 1951)
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First Constitutional Amendment Act passed to protect Zamindari Abolition Laws (1951)

• Pre-Context:

  • Pre-1910s: Prior to the twentieth century, peasant protests were highly localized, sporadic, and defensive, aimed at immediate grievances like high taxes or moneylenders' fraud. There was a total absence of a pan-Indian kisan network, a structured socialist ideology, or an alliance with the mainstream national movement, leaving the agricultural classes isolated and easily suppressed.

• Concurrent Events:

  • The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia (1917): The successful establishment of a socialist workers-and-peasants' state in Russia served as a massive ideological inspiration for Indian nationalists. This led directly to the formation of the Communist Party of India in 1920 and the subsequent organization of workers and peasants' parties across the country.

  • The Great Depression (1929–1930): This global economic collapse caused a catastrophic crash in agricultural commodity prices. This severely hit Indian peasant exporters and provided the volatile economic tinder that fueled the subsequent mass no-rent campaigns during the Civil Disobedience Movement.

• Post-Context:

  • Post-1950s: The intense pressure generated by these militant peasant struggles forced the leadership of independent India to prioritize land reforms. To prevent the laws from being struck down by courts, the Indian government introduced the First Constitutional Amendment Act of 1951, which officially paved the way for the formal abolition of the Zamindari and Jagirdari systems in the 1950s, fulfilling the democratic aspirations of the pioneering peasant martyrs.